平行結(jié)構(gòu)
1.注意由并列連詞或等立連詞連接的成分在語法形式上是否相同，即都是形容詞，或都是介詞短語，或都是不定式，或都是動名詞，或都是句子等。如：
Symposium talks will cover a wide range of subjects from overfishing to ph
ysical and environmental factors that affect the populations of different species.
In the teaching of mathematics, the way of instruction is generally traditional, with teachers presenting formal lectures and students taking notes.
2.注意比較結(jié)構(gòu)中相比較的內(nèi)容在語法形式上是否相同。如：
It is better to die on one’s feet than to live on one’s knees.
Despite the temporary difficulties, the manager prefers increasing the output to decreasing it.
3.其他具有并列或比較意義的短語。
(1)rather than, let alone 雖不是并列連詞，但在結(jié)構(gòu)上連接兩個語法形式相同的成分。如：
We are taught that a business letter should be written in a formal style rather than in a personal style.
For the new country to survive, let alone for its people to enjoy prosperity, new economic policies will be required.
(2)如果平行的兩個成分在形式上是介詞短語，而且介詞相同，一般說來第二個介詞不要省略。如：
At times, more care goes into the composition of newspaper and magazine advertisements than into the writing of the features and editorials.
代詞
1.與所指代的名詞在性、數(shù)、格上是否一致
如：Each cigarette a person smokes does some harm, and eventually he may get a serious disease from its effect.
It was during the 1920’s that the friendship between the two American writers Hemingway and Fitzgerald reached its highest point.
Our department was monitored by two supervisors, Bill and me.
2.that的指代作用
that指代不可數(shù)名詞和單數(shù)可數(shù)名詞(如是復(fù)數(shù)，用those)，后面通常跟有修飾語，如出現(xiàn)在比較結(jié)構(gòu)中的that of。如：
Conversation calls for a willingness to alternate the role of speaker with that of listener, and it calls for occasional “digestive pauses” by both.
No bread eaten by man is so sweet as that earned by his own labor.
3.one的指代作用
one指代帶不定冠詞的單數(shù)可數(shù)名詞，復(fù)數(shù)為ones。the one 指代帶定冠詞的單數(shù)可數(shù)名詞。如：
A good writer is one who can express the commonplace in an uncommon way.
4.do的替代作用
do代替動詞，注意數(shù)和時態(tài)的變化。如：
For him to be re’elected, what is essential is not that his policy works, but that the public believe that it does.
主謂一致問題
主謂一致是指主語與謂語在數(shù)上要一致。把握主謂一致問題，考生主要解決的是對不同結(jié)構(gòu)的主語單復(fù)數(shù)的認定，進而選擇適當?shù)闹^語。
1.主謂一致常出現(xiàn)在主謂倒裝結(jié)構(gòu)中。如：
Just outside the ruins is a magnificent building surrounded by tall trees.
Although a great number of houses in that area are still in need of repair, there has been improvement in the facilities.
2.主語與謂語之間有定語從句或其他結(jié)構(gòu)修飾，所以距離較遠，考生易誤認主語。如：
The amount of pressure which the materials are subject to affects the quality of the products.
3.關(guān)系代詞做主語的定語從句中，謂語的數(shù)要與先行詞一致。如：
Despite much research, there are still certain elements in the life cycle of the insect that are not fully understood.
There are many valuable services which the public are willing to pay for, but which do not bring a return in money to the community.
4.動名詞短語、不定式短語、名詞性從句做主語，謂語用單數(shù)。如：
Buying clothes is often a time-consuming job because those clothes that a person likes are rarely the ones that fit him or her.
To understand the situation completely requires more thought than has been given thus far.
5.主語帶有(together/along)with, such as, as well as, accompanied by, including, rather than 等附加成分, 謂語的數(shù)不受附加成分的影響。如：
The president of the college, together with the deans, is planning a conference for the purpose of laying down certain regulations.
6.表示時間、距離、金額、重量、面積、體積、容積等度量的名詞短語做主語時，謂語用單數(shù)。
7.某些固定結(jié)構(gòu)中謂語的數(shù)：
a great many + 可數(shù)名詞復(fù)數(shù) 謂語用復(fù)數(shù)
many a + 可數(shù)名詞單數(shù) 謂語用單數(shù)
a number of +可數(shù)名詞復(fù)數(shù) 謂語用復(fù)數(shù)
the number of +可數(shù)名詞復(fù)數(shù) 謂語用單數(shù)
the majority of +可數(shù)名詞復(fù)數(shù) 謂語用復(fù)數(shù)
each/every +可數(shù)名詞單數(shù) 謂語用單數(shù)
neither/either of +可數(shù)名詞復(fù)數(shù) 謂語用單數(shù)
more than one +可數(shù)名詞單數(shù) 謂語用單數(shù)
one and a half +可數(shù)名詞復(fù)數(shù) 謂語用單數(shù)
the greater part of
a large proportion of
50% of
謂語的數(shù)與of后面的名詞一致
one third of
plenty of
the rest of
倒裝結(jié)構(gòu)
倒裝是指句子成分不是按主語在前、謂語在后的正常語序排列，而是將謂語或謂語的一部分移到主語之前。倒裝是一種修辭手段，目的是為了強調(diào)。倒裝分為部分倒裝和全部倒裝，考試多為部分倒裝�？忌鷳�(yīng)掌握什么情況下需要倒裝。
1.下列否定詞及含有否定意義的詞組修飾狀語時，若置于句首，句子的主謂要部分倒裝
never, no, neither, not only, hardly, scarcely, little, seldom, rarely, not until, nowhere, at no time, on no account, in no respect, in no sense, by no means, in no way, no longer, no less, no more, no sooner than, under no circumstances, in vain, still less。如：
Not only is its direct attack on their discipline, it bypasses the essence of what sociologists focus on.
Under no circumstances should we do anything that will benefit ourselves but harm the interests of the state.
2.以only修飾狀語開頭的句子，句子的主謂要部分倒裝
only then, only at that time, only once, only in this way, only with, only through, only by, only when, only after, only because。如：
Only when you have obtained sufficient data can you come to a sound conclusion.
3.以下列副詞或短語開頭的句子，句子的主謂要部分倒裝
often, so, well, to such a degree, to such an extent, to such extremes, to such a point，many a time。如：
So involved with their computers do the children become that leaders at summer computer camps often have to force them to break for sports and games.
4.以下列副詞開頭的句子，句子的主謂要全部倒裝
(1)出于修辭需要，表示方向的副詞：out, down, in, up, away, on。如：
Down jumped the burglar from the tenth floor when he heard someone shouted at him.
(2)出于習(xí)慣用法：here, there, now, thus, hence, then。如：
Now is your turn. There goes the bell.
(3)有時主語較長，為了使句子平衡，避免頭重腳輕，主謂要全部倒裝。這種情況多出現(xiàn)在主系表結(jié)構(gòu)中。如：
Less important than ever is developing a meaningful philosophy of life.
In between these two extremes are those people who agree with the jury system as a whole, but feel that some changes need to be implemented to improve its effectiveness.
5.讓步從句的倒裝
(1)as引導(dǎo)讓步狀語從句，必須采用倒裝結(jié)構(gòu)，但不是主謂倒裝，而是將被強調(diào)的內(nèi)容置于句首。如：
Much as I have traveled, I have never seen anyone to equal her, in thoroughness, whatever the job.
(2)出現(xiàn)在句型be+主語+其他, come what may中。如：
While it’s true that we all need a career, preferably a profitable one, it is equally true that our civilization has accumulated an incredible amount of knowledge—be it scientific or artistic.
The business of each day, be it selling goods or shipping them, went quite smoothly.
Come what may, I’ll be on your side.
6.比較從句的倒裝
as, than引導(dǎo)的比較從句中，如果主語是名詞短語且較長，經(jīng)常采用倒裝結(jié)構(gòu)(不倒裝也可以)。注意：這種結(jié)構(gòu)主語一般為名詞，如果是代詞則不倒裝。如：
Hydrogen burns much more cleanly than do other fuels and is easy to produce.
Today’s electric cars cannot go as fast as gasoline-driven vehicles because the battery does not offer the same amount of energy as does gasoline combustion.
Reading is to the mind as is exercise to the body.
(1)如果謂語動詞是單個實義動詞，倒裝時需根據(jù)人稱和時態(tài)加助動詞do。如：
Little did we expect that he would fulfill his task so rapidly.
(2)考生要廣義理解“句首”的概念，注意從句的句首和并列分句的句首均為句首。如：
Suddenly, Gallup’s name was on everyone’s lips; not only was he the prophet of the moment, but it was generally believed that he had founded a new and most important method of prediction.
復(fù)合句——形容詞性(定語)從句
定語從句的測試重點：選擇正確的關(guān)系代詞或關(guān)系副詞。
切記：關(guān)系代詞/副詞一定要在從句中充當某種成分，即主語、賓語、表語或定語。指人時用who(做主語)、whom(做賓語)、whose(做定語)；指物時用which或that；指時間用when；指地點用where；指原因用why。此外還要注意如下幾個問題：
1.尤其要注意whose的用法
whose在從句中做定語，修飾名詞。所以，如果關(guān)系代詞后面緊接的是名詞，且關(guān)系代詞又不在從句中做主語或賓語，那么，這個關(guān)系代詞就應(yīng)該是whose。如：
Of course developing a system for helping students whose needs are out of the ordinary had been a necessary step in helping those students get into the world of public education.
It is perhaps not an exaggeration to say that we shall soon be trusting our health, wealth and happiness to elements with whose very names the general public are unfamiliar.
2.介詞 + which的用法
如果從句中主賓成分齊全，考生便可考慮關(guān)系代詞是否在從句中做狀語，而狀語通常用介詞短語充當，于是可以得知，關(guān)系代詞前面應(yīng)有介詞，再分析所給的選項，根據(jù)與名詞的搭配作出正確選擇。如：
Children are best served when schools contribute to shaping the solid foundation on which their future will be built.
However, the batteries from which they(electric vehicles) draw energy usually contain harmful chemicals, which become pollutants when the batteries are disposed of.
We are not conscious of the extent to which work provides the psychological satisfaction that can make the difference between a full and an empty life.
3.非限定性定語從句前面有逗號標志，按漢語習(xí)慣通常翻譯成兩個句子
切記：與漢語不同的是，英語中兩個句子之間一般說來不能用逗號斷開，而要用適當?shù)倪B詞或關(guān)系代詞使它們形成從屬或并列關(guān)系。據(jù)此可判斷出逗號后面一句應(yīng)由起連接作用的詞開頭。注意：有時關(guān)系代詞前面還有其他附加成分。如：
Biologists believe that rainforests are the home of perhaps half the world’s biotic species, about five-sixth of which have not yet been described and named.
There are two spare rooms in the building, neither of which has been provided with modern facilities.
4.as 與which用作關(guān)系代詞的區(qū)別
(1)as與the same, such, so, as等關(guān)聯(lián)使用。如：
As the forest goes, so goes its animal life.
(2)as和which都可以引導(dǎo)非限定性定語從句，但as在句中的位置比較靈活，可出現(xiàn)在句首、句中、句末，而which只能出現(xiàn)在句末，尤其是當先行詞是整個句子時。如：
As is true in all institutions, juries are capable of making mistakes.
As is generally accepted, economic growth is determined by the smooth development of production.
常見的這類結(jié)構(gòu)有：
as has been said before, as has been mentioned above, as can be imagined, as is known to all, as has been announced, as can be seen from these figures, as might/could be expected, as is often the case, as has been pointed out,
as often happens, as will be shown等。
5.關(guān)系代詞that與which用于引導(dǎo)定語從句的區(qū)別
(1)如果關(guān)系代詞在從句中做賓語，用that, which都可以，而且可以省略；
(2)先行詞是不定代詞anything, nothing, little, all, everything時，關(guān)系代詞用that；
(3)先行詞由形容詞最高級或序數(shù)詞修飾或由next，last, only, very修飾時，用that；
(4)非限定性定語從句只能用which引導(dǎo)；
(5)關(guān)系代詞前面如果有介詞，只能用which。
6.but做關(guān)系代詞，用于否定句，相當于who…not, that…not
這個結(jié)構(gòu)的特點是主句中常有否定詞或含有否定意義的詞。如：
There are few teachers but know how to use a computer.
There is no complicated problem but can be solved by a computer.
復(fù)合句——名詞性從句
一個句子起名詞的作用，在句中做主語、賓語／介詞賓語、表語、同位語，那么這個句子就是名詞性從句。
1.what/whatever的用法
考生應(yīng)把握：what是關(guān)系代詞，它起著引導(dǎo)從句并在從句中擔當一個成分這兩個作用。如：
They lost their way in the forest, and what made matters worse was that night began to fall.
(what既引導(dǎo)主語從句又在從句中做主語)
Water will continue to be what it is today—next in importance to oxygen.
(what既引導(dǎo)表語從句又在從句中做表語)
2.whoever和whomever的區(qū)別
whoever和whomever相當于anyone who，用主格與賓格取決于其在從句中做主語還是做賓語。如：
They always give the vacant seats to whoever comes first.
(whoever在從句中做主語)
3.有關(guān)同位語從句的問題
(1)下列名詞常用做同位語的先行詞：
appeal, belief, conclusion, condition, conviction, doubt, evidence, fact, fear, feeling, ground(s),hope, idea, likelihood, message, news, opinion, order, plan, point, possibility, problem, promise,reply, proof, proposal, question, rumor, sign, story, suggestion, suspicion, theory, thought, truth, trouble, understanding, worry。如：
I have no doubt that he will overcome all his difficulties.
One sign that you are making progress in an art such as painting or photography is that you begin to realize how much there is to learn.
(2)引導(dǎo)詞通常為that, 但有時因名詞內(nèi)容的需要，也可由whether及連接副詞why, when, where,how引導(dǎo)。that不表示任何意義，其他詞表示時間、地點、原因等。如：
The problem, where I will have my college education, at home or abroad, remains untouched.
The fact that she was a few minutes late is no reason for discharging her.
(3)同位語從句有時與先行詞隔開，注意識別。如：
Evidence came up that specific speech sounds a
re recognized by babies as young as 6 months old.
(4)同位語從句與定語從句的區(qū)別：
● 從意義上看，同位語從句說明名詞的具體內(nèi)容，定語從句則對名詞進行限定、修飾；
● 從結(jié)構(gòu)上看，同位語從句的引導(dǎo)詞不在從句中充當任何語法成分，定語從句的引導(dǎo)詞在從句中必須充當一定的句子成分；
● 從先行詞的詞義特點看，同位語從句的先行詞表達的是抽象內(nèi)容，這類詞數(shù)量有限，而定語從句的先行詞則沒有任何限制。
4.whether與if在引導(dǎo)名詞性從句時的區(qū)別
(1)主語從句只能用whether引導(dǎo)；
(2)whether一般多用于賓語從句的肯定式，而if引導(dǎo)的從句可以有否定式；
(3)whether or not可以連在一起用，而if or not則不能，or not只能放在句末；
(4)whether可以引導(dǎo)介詞賓語從句，if則不能；
(5)賓語從句提至謂語前面時，只能用whether引導(dǎo)；
(6)在question, ask后面一般只用whether，question的同位語從句也用whether引導(dǎo)；
(7)后接不定式時，只能用whether。
5.動詞believe, expect, fancy, imagine, suppose, think后的賓語從句如為否定式，一般將否定詞轉(zhuǎn)移到主句謂語上，這一點在翻譯時要注意與漢語表達的區(qū)別
復(fù)合句——副詞性(狀語)從句
副詞在句中起狀語作用，故如果起狀語作用的部分為一個句子，那么該句便是副詞性從句，也稱狀語從句。狀語從句可細分為：時間、地點、條件、原因、讓步、目的、結(jié)果、比較、方式等。
狀語從句的測試重點為：考查考生對主從句之間邏輯意義關(guān)系的把握，看其是否能選擇正確的從屬連詞。
對于常見的狀語從句和從屬連詞的常規(guī)用法，本書不想贅述，只談?wù)劤Ｒ姀膶龠B
詞的特殊用法并提醒考生應(yīng)注意的地方。
1.條件狀語從句的�？贾R點
(1)if與unless的用法。
if和unless都是引導(dǎo)條件狀語從句的連詞，考生應(yīng)尤其注意unless的用法，因為它表示反面條件，相當于if not“如果不”、“除非”。如：
Even if automakers modify commercially produced cars to run on alternative fuels, the cars won’t catch on in a big way unless drivers can fill them up at the gas station.
In debating, one must correct the opponent’s facts, deny the relevance of his proof, or deny that what he presents as proof, if relevant, is sufficient.
(2)復(fù)合連詞as long as，so long as，as far as，on condition that，in the event that；動詞及分詞provided(that)，providing(that)，given that, suppose/supposing(that)，assuming，say等引導(dǎo)條件狀語從句。如：
If left alone by humans, they (the forests) can regenerate, as long as there are seed trees in the neighborhood and the soil has not lost all its nutrients.
You can arrive in Beijing earlier for the meeting provided you don’t mind taking the night train.
Assuming he is diligent in his studies at ordinary times, he is sure to pass the test.
In the event that she has not been informed, I will tell her.(如果……)
You can go swimming on condition that you don’t go too far from the river bank.(如果……)
Suppose it rained, we would still go.(假如……)
Say it were true, what would you do about it? (假如……)
(3)祈使句表示條件。如：
Talk to anyone in the drug industry, and you’ll soon discover that the science of genetics is the biggest thing to hit drug research since penicillin was discovered.
Dress warmly, or else you’ll catch cold.
Hurry up, or the tickets will have been sold out by the time we get there.
2.讓步狀語從句的�？贾R點
(1)as 引導(dǎo)讓步從句，要求用倒裝結(jié)構(gòu)，把強調(diào)的部分置于句首。如：
Much as he likes her, he does get irritated with her sometimes.
Tired as he was, we decided to disturb him.
Humble as it may be, there is no place like home.
(2)while引導(dǎo)讓步從句。如:
Everybody cheats a little, some psychologists say, while others insist that most people are basically honest and some wouldn’t cheat under any circumstances.
While it’s true that we all need a career, preferably a profitable one, it is equally true that our civilization has accumulated an incredible amount of knowledge—be it scientific or artistic.
(3)復(fù)合連接詞for all that和分詞granting/granted(that)引導(dǎo)讓步從句。如:
Granted you have made much progress, you should not be conceited.
For all that computers can provide us with great help, they shouldn’t be seen as substitutes for fundamental thinking and reasoning skills.
3.時間狀語從句的�？贾R點
(1)before表示漢語的 “只有/必須……才能”。如:
Electronics must be programmed before they can work.必須為計算機編好程序它才能工作。
New ideas sometimes have to wait for years before they are fully accepted.有時候新的思想必須等待多年以后才能被人們完全接受。
(2)when引導(dǎo)時間從句時，如果出現(xiàn)在后半句，則表示“這/那時突然”。如：
He was almost hurt when the bus came to a sudden stop.(1991年6月四級考題)
I have just started back for the house to change my clothes when I heard the voices.
(3)when it comes to 是習(xí)慣用法，意為“當談到……時”。如：
Doing your homework is a sure way to improve your test scores, and this is especially true when it comes to classroom tests.
(4)名詞短語、介詞短語each /every time, the moment/second/minute, in the time, by the time起連詞作用。如:
I hope her health will have improved greatly by the time we come back next year.
If individuals are awakened each time they begin a dream phase of sleep, they are likely to become irritable even though their total amount of sleep has been sufficient.
My pain must have been apparent the moment I walked into the room, for the first man I met asked sympathetically: “Are you feeling all right?”
Mercury’s velocity is so much greater than the Earth’s that it completes more than four revolutions around the Sun in the time it takes the Earth to complete one.
(5)副詞directly, immediately, instantly, now引導(dǎo)時間從句, 相當于as soon as。如:
The policemen went into action directly they heard the alarm.
4.原因狀語從句的�？贾R點
(1)in that引導(dǎo)原因從句時,有時翻譯成“是因為”、“就在于”。如:
Advertising is distinguished from other forms of communication in that the advertiser pays for the message to be delivered.
Criticism and self-criticism is necessary in that it helps us to find and correct our mistakes.
(2)now that表示 “既然” ; seeing that, considering表示“鑒于”、“考慮到”。如:
Now that we have all the material ready, we should begin the new task at once.
He did poorly in the examinations, considering how hard he had tried for them.
Seeing she is lawfully enough to get married, I don’t think how you can stop her.
其他引導(dǎo)原因狀語從句的連接詞語還有: for the (simple) reason that, by reason that, on the grounds that, in as much as, in so far as等。
5.while, whereas 引導(dǎo)對比從句
如:
While the teenage population in the United States has declined over the past dec
ade, violent crimes committed by juveniles have sharply increased.
A baby might show fear of an unfamiliar adult, whereas he is likely to smile and reach out to another infant.
6.so…that…, with the result that, so much so that 引導(dǎo)結(jié)果狀語從句
如:
Conversation becomes weaker in a society that spends so much time listening and being talked to that it has all but lost the will and the skill to speak for itself.
Over the years, a large number of overseas students have studied at that university with the result that it has acquired substantial experience in dealing with them.
He himself believed in freedom, so much so that he would rather die than live without it.
7.in order that, in case, for fear that, lest (用虛擬語氣) 引導(dǎo)目的狀語從句
如:
Give me your telephone number, in case I need your help.
Helen listened carefully in order that she might discover exactly what John wanted.
8.where作為連接副詞的一種用法, 翻譯為“在……地方”
如:
In Japan, a person’s capabilities are not forced into an inflexible specialty. Where there is willingness and intelligence, there is a place within the company to try and to succeed.
Where the Atlantic Ocean crosses the equator, the trade wind causes a flow of water to the west.
省略
1.形容詞性(定語)從句關(guān)系代詞的省略
(1)that, which 引導(dǎo)定語從句并在從句中做賓語時，可以省略。
(2)that引導(dǎo)定語從句并且從句是there be句型時，可以省略。如：
No one would have the time to read or listen to an account of everything there is going on in the world.
2.副詞性(狀語)從句的省略
(1)虛擬語氣句省略條件連詞if，從句采用倒裝結(jié)構(gòu)。如：
Had it not been for the timely investment from the general public, our company would not be so thriving as it is.
(2)由although, as if, if, no matter + wh-, once, though, unless, until, when, where, whether, while等連詞引導(dǎo)的表示時間、地點、條件、讓步、方式的狀語從句，可省略主語和助動詞be,保留ing分詞、ed分詞或表語。這樣省略的條件是：●從句中被省略的主語必須與主句的主語一致；●謂語動詞必須含有be；●從句必須與主語和b
e動詞一起省去，不可只省略主語而保留整個謂語，也不可只保留主語而省略謂語。如：
Though raised in San Francisco, Dave Mitchell had always preferred to record the plain facts of small-town life.
Although born in Chicago, the author is most famous for his stories about New York City.
One should never lose one’s heart when confronted with temporary difficulties.
3.比較從句中主語的省略
在這種省略結(jié)構(gòu)中，也可以把than或as當成關(guān)系代詞。因為主語省略了，所以尤其要注意識別哪個詞是省略了的主語，進而選擇謂語的數(shù)、時態(tài)和語態(tài)。
These proposals sought to place greater restrictions on the use and copying of digital information than exist in traditional media.
There ought to be less anxiety over the perceived risk of getting cancer than exists in the public mind today.
The project requires more labor than has been put in because it is extremely difficult.
4.that用于引導(dǎo)賓語從句時，可以省略
